![[Cartoon]](chap2.gif)
Further,
This book uses the Lojban terms ``bridi'', ``sumti'', and
``selbri'', because it is best to come to understand them independently
of the English associations of the corresponding words, which are only
roughly similar in meaning anyhow.
All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are no silent
letters.
Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), nor gender
(masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally added
by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter.
Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other languages,
and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojban names:
see Chapter 6 for more information.
The Lojban bridi corresponding to Example 5.1 will have the form
Note that Example 5.7 is not subject to ellipsis by this direct method,
as the ``zo'e'' in it is not at the end of the bridi.
Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has become
first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observative,
because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of the
relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone
else. Commonly understood English observatives include ``Smoke!'' upon seeing
smoke or smelling the odor, or ``Car!'' to a person crossing the street
who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no
sumti appear before the selbri.
The word ``cu'' does not occur in an observative; ``cu'' is a separator, and
there must be a sumti before the selbri that needs to be kept separate for
``cu'' to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri, ``cu'' is not permitted.
Short words like ``cu'' which serve grammatical functions are called ``cmavo''
in Lojban.
Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; the
second sumti has remained in the second place.
More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri at one
time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. However, in
practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for complex
manipulation of the sumti places. See Chapter 5 for details.
The cmavo ``ni'o'' separates paragraphs (covering different topics of
discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the
text may be indicated by multiple ``ni'o''s, with perhaps ``ni'oni'oni'o'' used
to indicate a chapter, ``ni'oni'o'' to indicate a section, and a single ``ni'o''
to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single English paragraph.
The cmavo ``.i'' separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with words
that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the context
of the utterance. (The cmavo ``xu'', discussed in Section 1.7, is one such
word --- it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.)
When more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the
``.i'' even though she/he may be continuing on the same topic.
It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the ``.i'' before continuing; indeed,
it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second
speaker might merely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's
sentence). A good translation for ``.i'' is the ``and'' used in run-on
sentences when people are talking informally: ``I did this, and then I did
that, and
That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that
is fast and is also worn by a talker.
Note especially the use of ``type-of'' as a mechanism for connecting the
English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the
learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are
also possible, however:
Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:
Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying term is
converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings:
For example,
Similarly ``le sutra tavla ku'' is ``the fast talker'', and ``le sutra te
tavla ku'' is ``the fast subject of talk'' or ``the subject of fast talk''. Which
of these related meanings is understood will depend on the context in which
the expression is used. The most plausible interpretation within the
context will generally be assumed by a listener to be the intended one.
In many cases the word ``ku'' may be omitted. In particular, it is never
necessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so:
The word ``cu'' has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginning of the
selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It comes
before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like ``se'' or ``te''.
Thus:
The sumti ``le vecnu'' contains the selbri ``vecnu'', which has the ``seller'' in
the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to describe a particular ``seller''
that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she probably expects the listener
will also know about). Similarly, the speaker has a particular blue-green thing
in mind, which is described using ``le'' to mark ``blari'o'', a selbri whose
first sumti is something blue-green.
It is safe to omit both occurrences of ``ku'' in Example 10.8, and it is
also safe to omit the ``cu''.
The following three sentences all might translate as ``This pleases me.''
The ``ko'' need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur anywhere a
sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are very unlike
English commands:
The cmavo ``ko'' can fill any appropriate sumti place, and can be used as often
as is appropriate for the selbri:
The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti:
Like ``ko'', ``ma'' can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, not
just in the first position:
A ``ma'' can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one sentence, in effect
asking several questions at once.
A ``mo'' may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbri might. Keep this in
mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself, ``mo'' is a very
non-specific question. The response to the question in Example 15.5
could be:
It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other unspecified
places in responding to a ``mo'' question. Thus, the respondent in
Example 15.7 could have also specified an audience, a topic, and/or a
language in the response.
Like all yes-or-no questions in English, Example 15.8 may be reformulated
as
or
Lojban has a group of cmavo known as ``attitudinal indicators'' which specifically
covers this type of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written
and spoken, but require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically
they are very simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi
apply to the entire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the
word immediately to the left. For example:
In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefixed to
the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti:
Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English use of
``this'' or ``that'' as adjectives, as in the following example, which uses
the tag ``vi'' meaning ``nearby'':
Do not confuse the use of ``vi'' in Example 17.8 with the cmavo ``ti'',
which also means ``this'', but in the sense of ``this thing''.
1. The concept of the bridi
1.1) John is the father of Sam.
1.2) John hits Sam.
1.3) John is taller than Sam.
bridi (predicate)
______________|________________
| |
John is the father of Sam
|____| |______________| |___|
| | |
sumti selbri sumti (argument)
1.4) John gives Sam the book.
and
1.5) Sam gives John the book.
mean two different things because the relative positions of ``John'' and
``Sam'' have been switched.
1.6) The book gives John Sam.
seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled by
unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by ``give'' has not
changed.
2. Pronunciation
3. Words that can act as sumti
mi I/me, we/us
do you
ti this, these
ta that, those
tu that far away, those far away
zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is
unimportant or obvious)
la meris. the one/ones named Mary
la djan. the one/ones named John
4. Some words used to indicate selbri relations
vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer)
for x4 (price)
tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience)
about x3 (topic) in language x4
sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)
blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green
melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer)
by standard x3
cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot)
made of x3 (material)
bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs)
in manner x4 (gait)
klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from
x3 (origin point) via x4 (route)
using x5 (means of transportation)
pluka x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer)
under conditions x3
gerku x1 is a dog of breed x2
kurji x1 takes care of x2
kanro x1 is healthy by standard x2
stali x1 stays/remains with x2
zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products)
operated by x3 (storekeeper)
5. Some simple Lojban bridi
5.1) x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4
where the ``x''es with following numbers represent the various arguments
that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence.
For example:
5.2) John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban.
has ``John'' in the x1 place, ``Sam'' in the x2 place, ``engineering'' in
the x3 place, and ``Lojban'' in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased:
5.3) Talking is going on,
with speaker John
and listener Sam
and subject matter engineering
and language Lojban.
5.4) x1 [cu] tavla x2 x3 x4
-- ===== -- -- --
5.5) mi tavla do zo'e zo'e
-- ===== -- ---- ----
I talk to you about something in some language.
5.6) do tavla mi ta zo'e
-- ===== -- -- ----
You talk to me about that thing in a language.
5.7) mi tavla zo'e tu ti
-- ===== ---- -- --
I talk to someone about that thing yonder
in this language.
(Example 5.7 is a bit unusual, as there is no easy way to point to a
language; one might point to a copy of this book, and hope the
meaning gets across!)
5.8) mi tavla do
-- ===== --
I talk to you (about something in some language).
5.9) do tavla mi ta
-- ===== -- --
You talk to me about that thing (in some language).
6. Variant bridi structure
6.1) mi [cu] vecnu ti ta zo'e
-- ===== -- -- ----
seller-x1 sells goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 price-x4
I sell this to that for some price.
I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers.
(The price is obvious or unimportant.)
Example 6.1 has one sumti (the x1) before the selbri. It is also possible
to put more than one sumti before the selbri, without changing the order
of sumti:
6.2) mi ti [cu] vecnu ta
-- -- ===== --
seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 sells buyer-x3
I this sell to that.
(translates as stilted or poetic English)
I this thing do sell to that buyer.
6.3) mi ti ta [cu] vecnu
-- -- -- =====
seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 sells
I this to-that sell.
(translates as stilted or poetic English)
I this thing to that buyer do sell.
Examples 6.1 through 6.3 mean the same thing. Usually, placing more than
one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for emphasis on the sumti
that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Native speakers of
languages other than English may prefer such orders.)
6.4) ta [cu] melbi
-- =====
object/idea-x1 is-beautiful
(to someone by some standard)
That/Those is/are beautiful.
That is beautiful.
Those are beautiful.
when the x1 is omitted, becomes:
6.5) melbi
-------------- =====
unspecified-x1 is-beautiful
(to someone by some standard)
Beautiful!
It's beautiful!
7. Varying the order of sumti
7.1) mi tavla do ti
-- ===== -- --
I talk to you about this.
has the same meaning as
7.2) do se tavla mi ti
-- ======== -- --
You are talked to by me about this.
7.3) mi tavla do ti
-- ===== -- --
I talk to you about this.
has the same meaning as
7.4) ti te tavla do mi
-- ======== -- --
This is talked about to you by me.
8. The basic structure of longer utterances
9. tanru
9.1) sutra tavla
has the place structure
9.2) x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3
in language x4
x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4
9.3) sutra tavla cutci
has the place structure
9.4) s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe
worn by s2 of material s3
9.5) bajra cutci
runner shoe
most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpreted
in some imaginative instances as ``shoes that run (by themselves?)''. In
general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning
of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus
9.6) sutra tavla
fast-talker
would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the
English idiom, and a
9.7) jikca toldi
social butterfly
9.8) mi [cu] sutra klama la meris.
-- =========== ---------
I quickly-go to Mary.
9.9) mi [cu] sutra se klama la meris.
-- ============== ---------
I quickly am-gone-to by Mary.
9.10) la tam. [cu] melbi tavla la meris.
------- =========== ---------
Tom beautifully-talks to Mary.
Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary.
has the place structure of ``tavla'', but note the two distinct interpretations.
9.11) la meris. [cu] melbi se tavla la tam.
--------- ============== -------
Mary is beautifully-talked-to by Tom.
Mary is a beautiful-audience for Tom.
and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus on Mary's
role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of possible
interpretations.
9.12) la tam. [cu] tavla melbi la meris.
------- =========== ---------
Tom is talkerly-beautiful to Mary.
9.13) la tam. [cu] se tavla melbi la meris.
------- ============== ---------
Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary.
and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by Mary
changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, the
observer of beauty.
10. Description sumti
10.1) mi tavla do le tavla ku
-- ===== -- -----------
means the same as
10.2) I talk to you about the talker
where ``the talker'' is presumably someone other than me, though not
necessarily.
10.3) mi tavla do le tavla ku
-- ===== -- -----------
I talk-to you about-the talker
means exactly the same thing as Example 10.1.
10.4) le sutra tavla
--------------
The fast talker
10.5) le sutra cu tavla
-------- =====
The fast one is talking.
10.6) le sutra se tavla
-----------------
The fast talked-to one
10.7) le sutra cu se tavla
-------- ========
The fast one is talked to.
10.8) mi [cu] tavla le vecnu [ku] le blari'o [ku]
-- ===== ------------- ---------------
I talk-to the seller about the blue-green-thing.
11. Examples of brivla
11.1) mi [cu] klama ti zo'e zo'e ta
-- ===== -- ---- ---- --
Go-er goes destination origin route means.
I go here (to this) using that means
(from somewhere via some route).
11.2) ta [cu] blari'o
-- =======
That is-blue-green.
11.3) ti [cu] djarspageti
-- ===========
This is-spaghetti.
11.4) ta [cu] go'i
-- ====
That too/same-as-last selbri.
That (is spaghetti), too.
12. The sumti ``di'u'' and ``la'e di'u''
12.1) le gerku [ku] cu melbi
------------- =====
The dog is beautiful.
12.2) ti [cu] pluka mi
-- ===== --
This (the dog) pleases me.
12.3) di'u [cu] pluka mi
---- ===== --
This (the last sentence) pleases me
(perhaps because it is grammatical or sounds nice).
12.4) la'e di'u [cu] pluka mi
--------- =====
This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that
the dog is beautiful) pleases me.
Example 12.4 uses one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference.
It is common to write ``la'edi'u'' as a single word; it is used more often
than ``di'u'' by itself.
13. Possession
13.1) le mi gerku cu sutra
----------- =====
The of-me dog is fast.
My dog is fast.
14. Vocatives and commands
14.1) doi djan.
means ``Oh, John, I'm talking to you''. It also has the effect of setting the
value of ``do''; ``do'' now refers to ``John'' until it is changed in some way in
the conversation. Note that Example 14.1 is not a bridi, but it is a
legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a ``vocative phrase''.
14.2) coi. djan.
Hello, John.
14.3) co'o. djan.
Good-bye, John.
14.4) do tavla
-- =====
You are-talking.
you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a command
in Lojban, substitute the word ``ko'' for ``do''. The bridi
14.5) ko tavla
-- =====
instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make Example 14.4 true;
it means ``Talk!'' Other examples:
14.6) ko sutra
-- =====
Be fast!
14.7) mi tavla ko
-- ===== --
Be talked to by me
Let me talk to you.
14.8) ko kurji ko
-- ===== --
and
14.9) ko ko kurji
-- -- =====
both mean ``You take care of you'' and ``Be taken care of by you'', or to put it
colloquially, ``Take care of yourself''.
15. Questions
15.1) ma tavla do mi
-- ===== -- --
Who? talks to-you about-me.
Who is talking to you about me?
15.2) la djan.
--------
John (is talking to you about me).
15.3) do [cu] tavla ma
-- ===== --
You talk to what/whom?
15.4) ma [cu] tavla ma
-- ===== --
What/Who talks to what/whom?
15.5) do [cu] mo
-- ==
You are-what/do-what?
15.6) mi [cu] melbi
-- =====
I am beautiful.
or:
15.7) mi [cu] tavla
-- =====
I talk.
15.8) Are you talking to me?
15.9) Is it true that you are talking to me?
15.10) xu do tavla mi
-- ===== --
Is-it-true-that you are-talking to-me?
is the Lojban translation of Example 15.8.
15.11) xu do kanro
-- =====
Are you healthy?
can be answered with
15.12) mi kanro
-- =====
I am healthy.
or
15.13) go'i
====
I am healthy.
(Note that ``do'' to the questioner is ``mi'' to the respondent.)
15.14) le tavla cu kanro
-------- =====
The talker is healthy.
or
15.15) le tavla cu go'i
-------- ====
The talker is healthy.
16. Indicators
16.1) .ie mi [cu] klama
-- =====
Agreement! I go.
Yep! I'll go.
16.2) .ei mi [cu] klama
-- =====
Obligation! I go.
I should go.
16.3) mi [cu] klama le melbi .ui [ku]
-- ===== --------( )---
I go to the beautiful-thing
(and I am happy because it is the beautiful
thing I'm going to).
16.4) mi [cu] klama .i do [cu] stali
-- ===== -- =====
I go. You stay.
16.5) mi [cu] klama .i ji'a do [cu] stali
-- ===== -- =====
I go. In addition, you stay. (added weight)
16.6) mi [cu] klama .i ku'i do [cu] stali
-- ===== -- =====
I go. However, you stay. (contrast)
16.7) pe'i do [cu] melbi
-- =====
I opine! You are beautiful.
16.8) za'a do [cu] melbi
-- =====
I directly observe! You are beautiful.
17. Tenses
17.1) John went to the store
necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas
17.2) John is going to the store
is necessarily happening right now.
17.3) la djan. [cu] klama le zarci
-------- ========== --------
John goes/went/will go to-the store
serves as a translation of either Example 17.1 or Example 17.2, and of
many other possible English sentences as well. it is not marked for
tense, and can refer to an event in the past, the present or the future.
This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of representing the time
of an event. A close translation of Example 17.1 would be:
17.4) la djan. pu klama le zarci
-------- ======== --------
John [past] goes to-the store
where the tag ``pu'' forces the sentence to refer to a time in the past.
Similarly,
17.5) la djan. ca klama le zarci
-------- ======== --------
John [present] goes to-the store
necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag ``ca''. Tags
used in this way always appear at the very beginning of the selbri,
just after the ``cu'', and they may make a ``cu'' unnecessary, since tags
cannot be absorbed into tanru. Note that Example 17.3 has and requires
a ``cu'' to prevent ``bajra'' and ``klama'' from forming a tanru, but
Example 17.4 and Example 17.5 lack the unnecessary ``cu''.
Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojban,
tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriate
tense is picked up from context.
17.6) do [cu] vu vecnu zo'e
-- ========
You yonder sell something-unspecified.
17.7) le pu bajra [ku] cu tavla
---------------- =====
The earlier/former/past runner talked/talks.
(Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she talks.)
17.8) le vi bajra [ku] cu tavla
---------------- =====
The nearby runner talks.
This runner talks.
17.9) le vi tavla [ku] cu ba klama
---------------- ========
The here talker [future] goes.
The talker who is here will go
This talker will go.
18. Lojban grammatical terms