![[Cartoon]](chap5.gif)
For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike. For example,
The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla,
because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that
wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.
Note that ``pelnimre'' is a lujvo for ``lemon''; it is derived from the
gismu ``pelxu'', yellow, and ``nimre'', citrus. Note also that ``sutra''
can mean ``fast/quick'' or ``quickly'' depending on its use:
This ``type of'' relationship between the components of a tanru is fundamental
to the tanru concept.
This ``way that boys are big'' would be quite different from the way in which
elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant.
The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
What does it mean? Two possible readings are:
The ``bo'' is represented in the literal translation by a hyphen because
in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the same purpose:
``a big dog-catcher'' would be quite different from a ``big-dog catcher''
(presumably someone who catches only big dogs).
What about Example 3.6? What does it mean?
Another way to express the English meaning of Example 3.4 and Example 3.5,
using parentheses to mark grouping, is:
Because ``type-of'' is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no Lojban
equivalent.
Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert ``bo'' into a
simple tanru:
In Example 4.1, the selbri is a tanru with seltau ``mutce bo barda''
and tertau ``gerku bo kavbu''. It is worth emphasizing once
again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other
Lojban tanru: the sense in which the ``dog type-of capturer'' is said to be
``very type-of large'' is not precisely specified. Presumably it is his
body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other
properties.
The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number of ``ke''
cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like number of ``ke'e'' cmavo at
its end. Obviously, all of these are a waste of breath once the
left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the following is
equivalent to Example 4.4 and may be easier to understand:
Likewise, a ``ke'' and ``ke'e'' version of Example 4.3 would be:
The final ``ke'e'' is given in square brackets here to indicate that it can be
elided. It is always possible to elide ``ke'e'' at the end of the selbri,
making Example 5.5 as terse as Example 4.3.
Now how about that fifth grouping? It is
The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
Of course,
With no grouping indicators, we get:
With the addition of ``je'', many more versions of ``pretty little girls'
school'' are made possible: see Section 16 for a complete list.
A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like Example 6.3 needs special
elucidation. There are at least two possible interpretations of:
It can be understood as:
In Example 6.13, ``ja'' is grammatically equivalent to ``je'' but means ``or''
(more precisely, ``and/or''). Likewise, ``naja'' means ``only if'' in Example 6.14,
``jo'' means ``if and only if'' in Example 6.15, and ``ju'' means ``whether or
not'' in Example 6.16.
An alternative form of Example 6.17 is:
The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but probably
striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two colors.
Example 6.20 is distinct from:
The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed over so
far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues in
detail; they are discussed in Chapter 9. One grammatical structure related
to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as Example 1.1,
the place structure of the selbri is simply the defined place structure of
the gismu ``mamta''. What about more complex selbri?
What about the places of ``blanu''? Is there any way to get them into the
act? In fact, ``blanu'' has only one place, and this is merged, as it were,
with the x1 place of ``zdani''. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is
being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace ``blanu'' with
``xamgu'', we get:
Since ``xamgu'' has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the person for whom
it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness), Example 7.1 necessarily omits
information about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be
made, however!
Here the three places of ``cmalu'', the three of ``nixli'', and the four of
``ckule'' are fully specified. Since the places of ``ckule'' are the places
of the bridi as a whole, it was not necessary to link the sumti which
follow ``ckule''. It would have been legal to do so, however:
Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while
omitting a previous place:
The meaning of Example 7.9 is slightly different from:
See discussions in Chapter 9 of modals and in Chapter 10 of tenses for more
explanations.
The following cmavo is discussed in this section:
As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and GOhI, explained
in Chapter 7) for referring to individual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to
any of the trailing places of Example 8.4, because they are not really
``sumti of the bridi'' at all.
As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of
The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
A possible tanru example might be:
The following cmavo are discussed in this section:
In Example 10.8 the ``me'' selbri covers the three kings plus John, and
the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white:
we cannot say which two. In Example 10.9, though, the ``me'' selbri covers
only the three kings: two of them are said to be white, and so is John.
Finally, here is another example requiring ``me'u'':
There are other sentences where either ``me'u'' or some other elidable
terminator must be expressed:
In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selma'o SE
before the selbri:
Conversion is fully explained in Chapter 9. For the purposes of this chapter,
the important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following
simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary
to be careful! Consider Example 11.3:
To convert this sentence so that ``le zarci'' is in the x1 place, one
correct way is:
But the tanru in Example 11.6 may or may not have the same meaning as that
in Example 11.3; in particular, because ``cadzu'' is not converted, there is
a suggestion that although Alice is the goer, the market is the walker.
With a different sumti as x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make
considerable sense:
Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in Section 9 may be
used in place of brivla in any of these examples:
Since only ``pamoi'' is negated, an appropriate inference is that he is some
other kind of speaker.
In Example 12.4, ``na'e'' negates only ``sutra''. Contrast Example 12.5:
Now consider Example 12.6 and Example 12.7, which are equivalent in
meaning, but use ``ke'' grouping and ``bo'' grouping respectively:
However, if we place a ``na'e'' at the beginning of the selbri in both
Example 12.6 and Example 12.7, we get different results:
The difference arises because the ``na'e'' in Example 12.9 negates the
whole construction from ``ke'' to ``ke'e'', whereas in Example 12.8 it negates
``sutra'' alone.
And if both ``ke'e'' and ``be'o'' are omitted, the results are even sillier:
In Example 12.11, everything after ``be'' is a linked sumti, so the place
structure is that of ``cadzu'', whose x2 place is the surface walked upon.
It is less than clear what an ``arm-type goer'' might be. Furthermore, since
the x3 place has been occupied by the linked sumti, the ``le zarci'' following
the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 place of ``cadzu''. As a result, the
whole example, though grammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed
Lojban words appear where a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be
implied.)
A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time,
place, or mode of action. For example, in
Similarly, a bridi may have the particle ``na'' (of selma'o NA) attached
to the beginning of the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi
expresses what is false without saying anything about what is true.
Do not confuse this usage with the scalar negation of Section 12. For
example:
Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all; Example 13.2
doesn't say. There are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well;
the topic is explained fully in Chapter 15.
1. Lojban content words: brivla
1.1) do mamta mi
You are-a-mother-of me.
You are my mother.
and
1.2) do patfu mi
You are-a-father-of me.
You are my father.
lies in the different selbri.
1.3) ta bloti
That is-a-boat.
That is a boat.
1.4) ta brablo
that is-a-large-boat.
That is a ship.
1.5) ta blotrskunri
That is-a-(boat)-schooner.
That is a schooner.
illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla respectively),
but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose meaning can be
learned independent of its origins.
2. Simple tanru
2.1) tu pelnimre tricu
that-yonder is-a-(lemon tree).
That is a lemon tree.
2.2) la djan. barda nanla
John is-a-big boy.
John is a big boy.
2.3) mi sutra bajra
I quick run.
I quickly run/I run quickly.
2.4) mi sutra
I am-fast/quick.
2.5) That is a lemon type of tree.
2.6) That is a tree which is lemon-ish
(in the way appropriate to trees)
would be another possible translation of Example 2.1. In the same way,
a more explicit translation of Example 2.2 might be:
2.7) John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big.
2.8) ta klama jubme
That is-a-goer type-of-table.
include:
2.9) do barda prenu
You are-a-large person.
2.10) do cmalu prenu
You are-a-small person.
are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between ``barda''
and ``prenu'' is the same as that between ``cmalu'' and ``prenu''. Section 14
and Section 15 contain a partial listing of some types of tanru, with examples.
3. Three-part tanru grouping with ``bo''
bo BO closest scope grouping
3.1) That's a little girls' school.
3.2) That's a little school for girls.
3.3) That's a school for little girls.
3.4) ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
That is-a-small girl -- school.
Example 3.3 might be translated:
3.5) ta cmalu bo nixli ckule
That is-a-small -- girl school.
3.6) ta cmalu nixli ckule
That is-a-small girl school.
3.7) ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).
3.8) ta cmalu bo nixli ckule
That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school.
3.9) ta klama bo jubme
That is-a goer -- table
is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as Example 2.8,
and is ambiguous in exactly the same ways. The cmavo ``bo'' serves only
to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says nothing about the more basic
ambiguity present in all tanru.
4. Complex tanru grouping
4.1) do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu
You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer).
You are a very large dog-catcher.
4.2) ta melbi cmalu
nixli ckule
That is-a-((pretty type-of little)
type-of girl) type-of school.
That is a school for girls who are beautifully small.
4.3) ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule
That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl type-of school).
That is a girls' school which is beautifully small.
4.4) ta melbi cmalu bo nixli
ckule
That is-a-(pretty type-of (little type-of girl))
type-of school.
That is a school for small girls who are beautiful.
4.5) ta melbi cmalu bo
nixli bo ckule
That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of
(girl type-of school)).
That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.
4.6) ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule
That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school).
means the same as Example 3.4, not Example 3.5. This rule may seem peculiar
at first, but one of its consequences is that ``bo'' is never necessary
between the first two elements of any of the complex tanru presented so far:
all of Examples 4.2 through 4.5 could have ``bo'' inserted between ``melbi'' and
``cmalu'' with no change in meaning.
5. Complex tanru with ``ke'' and ``ke'e''
ke KE start grouping
ke'e KEhE end grouping
5.1) ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.
5.2) ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule
That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school.
5.3) ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e
That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ).
5.4) ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e
ckule
That is-a-(pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ))
type-of school.
5.5) ta melbi cmalu
ke nixli ckule [ke'e]
That is-a-(pretty type-of little)
( girl type-of school ).
5.6) ta melbi
ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]
That is-a-pretty type-of
( (little type-of girl) type-of school )
That is a beautiful school for small girls.
Example 5.6 is distinctly different in meaning from any of Examples 4.2
through 4.5. Note that within the ``ke 5.7) ta melbi
ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]
That is-a-pretty type-of
( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).
can equivalently be expressed as:
5.8) ta melbi
ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]
That is-a-pretty
type-of ( little type-of (girl type-of school) ).
and in many other different forms as well.
6. Logical connection within tanru
je JA tanru logical ``and''
ja JA tanru logical ``or''
joi JOI mixed mass ``and''
gu'e GUhA tanru forethought logical ``and''
gi GI forethought connection separator
6.1) barda xunre gerku
(big type-of red) type-of dog
will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever way
redness might be described as ``big''. Nor is
6.2) barda xunre bo gerku
big type-of (red type-of dog)
6.3) barda je xunre gerku
(big and red) type-of dog
6.4) xunre je barda gerku
(red and big) type-of dog
6.5) barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku
barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku
(big and (yellow type-of red)) dog
big yellowish-red dog
6.6) barda je pelxu xunre gerku
((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog
biggish- and yellowish-red dog
which again raises the question of Example 6.1: what is does ``biggish-red''
mean?
6.7) ta blanu je zdani
that is-blue and is-a-house
definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house, and not to
any of the other possible interpretations of simple ``blanu zdani''. Furthermore,
``blanu zdani'' refers to something which is blue in the way that houses are
blue; ``blanu je zdani'' has no such implication --- the blueness of a ``blanu
je zdani'' is independent of its houseness.
6.8) ta melbi je nixli ckule
That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school.
6.9) That is a girls' school and a beautiful school.
or as:
6.10) That is a school for things
which are both girls and beautiful.
6.11) ta ke melbi ckule ke'e
je ke nixli ckule [ke'e]
That is-a-( beautiful type-of school )
and ( girl type-of school )
whereas the interpretation specified by Example 6.10 does not. This is
a kind of semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm
resolution. The way in which the school is said to be of type ``beautiful
and girl'' may entail that it is separately a beautiful school and a girls'
school; but the alternative interpretation, that the members of the
school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Still another
interpretation is:
6.12) That is a school for beautiful things
and also for girls.
so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of tanru,
they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves.
6.13) le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga
the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).
6.14) blanu naja lenku skapi
(blue only-if cold) skin
skin which is blue only if it is cold
6.15) xamgu jo cortu nuntavla
(good if-and-only-if short) speech
speech which is good if (and only if) it is short
6.16) vajni ju pluka nuntavla
(important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking
speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing
6.17) ricfu je blanu jabo crino
rich and (blue or green)
6.18) ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu
rich and (blue or green -- blue)
rich and (blue or greenish-blue)
6.19) ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e]
rich and ( blue or green )
6.20) ti blanu joi xunre bolci
This is-a-(blue and red) ball.
6.21) ti blanu xunre bolci
This is a bluish-red ball
which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending toward red,
since ``xunre'' is the more important of the two components. On the other
hand,
6.22) ti blanu je xunre bolci
This is a (blue and red) ball
is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball is
independently both blu and red at the same time, although some sensible
interpretation may exist.
6.20) gu'e barda gi xunre gerku
(both big and red) type-of dog
is equivalent in meaning to Example 6.3. For each logical connective
related to ``je'', there is a corresponding connective related to ``gu'e 6.21) gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu
(both (big and red) and dog) or cat
something which is either big, red, and a dog,
or else a cat
leaves ``mlatu'' outside the ``gu'e--gi'' construction. The scope of the ``gi''
arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more brivla connected
with ``bo'' or ``ke--ke'e''.
7. Linked sumti: ``be--bei--be'o''
be BE linked sumti marker
bei BEI linked sumti separator
be'o BEhO linked sumti terminator
7.1) ti xamgu zdani
this is-a-good house.
This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.
7.2) ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani
this is-a-good ( for you by-standard me ) house.
This is a house that is good for you by my standards.
7.3) ti cmalu be le ka canlu
bei lo'e ckule be'o
nixli be li mu
bei lo merko be'o bo
ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci
le mela nu,IORK. prenu
le jecta
This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume
by-standard the-typical school)
(girl (of-years the-number five
by-standard some American-thing)
school) in-Brooklyn with-subject poems
for-audience New-York persons
with-operator the state.
This is a school, small in volume compared to the
typical school, pertaining to five-year-old
girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn,
teaching poetry to the New York community
and operated by the state.
7.4) mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o]
I go (to-the market from-the house).
means the same as
7.5) mi klama le zarci le zdani
I go to-the market from-the house.
7.6) melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule
a (pretty and little) (girl school)
a school for girls which is both beautiful and small
is simply that of ``ckule''. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed
in Section 8.)
7.7) ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani
this is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house
which is equivalent in meaning to Example 7.2. Note that the order of
``be'', ``bei'', and ``be'o'' does not change; only the inserted ``fi'' tells
us that ``mi'' is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted ``fe''
tells us that ``do'' is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is
often done to match the order of another language, or for
emphasis or rhythm.
7.8) ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani
this is-a-good (by-standard me) house
This is a good house by my standards.
7.9) ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani
That is-a-blue ( to-observer me ) house.
That is a blue, as I see it, house.
7.10) ta blanu zdani ga'a mi
That is-a-blue house to-observer me.
That is a blue house, as I see it.
7.11) le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani
The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house.
7.12) le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani
The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house
(Relative clauses are explained in Chapter 8.)
7.13) le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani
the good (for the teacher ) house
requires either ``ku'' or ``be'o'', and since there is only one occurrence
of ``be'', the ``be'o'' must match it, whereas it may be confusing which
occurrence of ``le'' the ``ku'' terminates (in fact the second one is correct).
8. Inversion of tanru: ``co''
co CO tanru inversion marker
8.1) ta blanu zdani
That is-a-blue type-of-house.
That is a blue house.
8.2) ta zdani co blanu
That is-a-house of-type blue.
That is a blue house.
8.3) mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o
troci
I am-a-(goer to the market from the house)
type-of trier.
I try to go to the market from the house.
8.4) mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani
I am-a-trier
of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).
I try to go to the market from the house.
Example 8.4 is a less deeply nested construction, requiring fewer cmavo.
As a result it is probably easier to understand.
8.5) ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu
that (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little.
That's a girls' school which is small.
8.6) ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e]
co melbi
that is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school))
of-type pretty.
That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.
8.7) ckule co melbi nixli
school of-type pretty girl
school for beautiful girls
means the same as:
8.8) ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule
( pretty girl ) school
8.9) ckule co nixli co cmalu
school of-type (girl of-type little)
becomes formally
8.10) ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule
( ( little ) girl ) school
which by the left-grouping rule is simply
8.11) cmalu nixli ckule
little girl school
school for little girls
8.12) mi klama co sutra
I am-a-goer of-type quick
I go quickly
cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any
sumti in that position fill the places of ``sutra'', the seltau.
However, the tertau places (which means in effect the selbri
places) can be filled with ``be'':
8.13) mi klama be le zarci co sutra
I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick.
I go to the store quickly.
9. Other kinds of simple selbri
go'i GOhA repeats the previous bridi
du GOhA equality
nu'a NUhA math operator to selbri
moi MOI changes number to ordinal selbri
mei MOI changes number to cardinal selbri
nu NU event abstraction
kei KEI terminator for ``nu''
9.1) la djan. klama le zarci
John goes-to the market.
you may retort:
9.2) la djan. go'i troci
John [repeat last] are-a-tryer
John tries to.
Example 9.2 is short for:
9.3) la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci
John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier.
because the whole bridi of Example 9.1 has been packaged up into the
single word ``go'i'' and inserted into Example 9.2.
for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOhA is
available in Chapter 7.
for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x1
place because the number of following places may be indefinite.)
For example:
9.4) li vo nu'a su'i li re li re
The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2.
9.5) mi jimpe tu'a nu'a su'i nabmi
I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of problems.
I understand addition problems.
9.6) la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku
Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker.
Preem Palver is the first speaker.
9.7) la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei
Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome.
Anyi and Asun are two brothers.
9.8) ti nu zdile kei kumfa
This is-an-event-of amusement room.
This is an amusement room.
Example 9.8 is quite distinct in meaning from:
9.9) ti zdile kumfa
This is-an-amuser room.
which suggests the meaning ``a room that amuses someone''.
10. selbri based on sumti: ``me''
me ME changes sumti to simple selbri
me'u MEhU terminator for ``me''
which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of the
sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti
10.1) le ci nolraitru
the three noblest-governors
the three kings
10.2) la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru
Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of ``the three kings''.
Balthazar is one of the three kings.
and likewise
10.3) la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru
Caspar is one of the three kings.
and
10.4) la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru
Melchior is one of the three kings.
10.5) do du la djan.
You are-identical-with the-one-called ``John''.
You are John.
means the same as
10.6) do me la djan.
You are-the-referent-of ``the-one-called `John'''.
You are John.
10.7) ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce
That (is-a-referent of ``the-mass-called `Chrysler''') car.
That is a Chrysler car.
10.8) re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi
Two of the group ``the three kings and John'' are white.
10.9) re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi
Two of the three kings, and John, are white.
10.10) ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta
That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book.
That is the kind of book you were talking about.
10.11) le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci
the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating
the Three Kings celebration
requires either ``ku'' or ``me'u'' to be explicit, and (as with ``be'o'' in
Section 7) the ``me'u'' leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.
11. Conversion of simple selbri
11.1) mi prami do
I love you.
is equivalent in meaning to:
11.2) do se prami mi
You [swap x1 and x2] love me.
You are loved by me.
11.3) la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci
Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market.
Alice walkingly goes to the market.
Alice walks to the market.
11.4) le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis.
The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] ( walker type-of goer) Alice.
The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice.
11.5) le zarci cu se cadzu
klama la .alis.
The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker)
type-of goer to Alice.
The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice.
whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the place
structure of ``cadzu klama'' is that of ``klama'' alone, is to convert
only the latter:
11.6) le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis.
The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice.
11.7) la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis
John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice
suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target.
12. Scalar negation of selbri
12.1) la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci
Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market.
Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market.
Alice doesn't walk to the market.
meaning that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that
of walking there. But if the ``ke'' were omitted, the result would be:
12.2) la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci
Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market.
Alice doesn't walk to the market.
meaning that Alice does go there in some way (``klama'' is not negated), but
by a means other than that of walking. Example 12.1 negates both ``cadzu''
and ``klama'', suggesting that Alice's relation to the market is something
different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without going, or
going without walking, or neither.
12.3) la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku
Jones is non-1st speaker
Jones is not the first speaker.
12.4) mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o
klama le zarci
I ((non-quickly) ( walking using the arms))
go-to the market.
I go to the market, walking using my arms
other than quickly.
12.5) mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e
klama le zarci
I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) )
go-to the market.
I go to the market, other than by walking
quickly on my arms.
12.6) mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno
klama le zarci
I (quickly -- (walking using the arms) and slowly)
go-to the market.
I go to the market, both quickly walking
using my arms and slowly.
12.7) mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e
je masno klama le zarci
I ((quickly (walking using the arms))
and slowly) go-to the market.
I go to the market, both quickly walking
using my arms and slowly.
12.8) mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o
je masno klama le zarci
I ((non- quickly) -- (walking using the arms)
and slowly) go-to the market.
I go to the market, both walking using my arms
other than quickly, and also slowly.
12.9) mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e
je masno klama le zarci
I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms))
and slowly) go-to the market.
I go to the market, both other than quickly
walking using my arms, and also slowly.
12.10) mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o
je masno klama [ke'e] le zarci
I non-(quickly ((walking using the arms))
and slowly) go-to) the market.
I do something other than quickly both
going to the market walking using my arms
and slowly going to the market.
12.11) mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka
je masno klama [be'o] [ke'e] le zarci
I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type
and slow) goers) on the market.
I do something other than quickly walking using the
goers, both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.
13. Tenses and bridi negation
13.1) mi pu klama le zarci
I [past] go to-the market.
I went to the market.
the cmavo ``pu'' specifies that the action of the speaker going to the market
takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in Chapter 10.
Tense is semantically a property of the entire bridi; however, the usual
syntax for tenses attaches them at the front of the selbri, as in
Example 13.1. There are alternative ways of expressing tense information as
well. Modals, which are explained in Chapter 9, behave in the same way
as tenses.
13.2) la djonz. na pamoi cusku
Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker
It is not true that Jones is the first speaker.
Jones isn't the first speaker.
13.3) mi na pu klama le zarci
mi pu na klama le zarci
It is false that I went to the market.
I didn't go to the market.